Causes of Global Warming: Natural Causes Vs.Human Causes of Global Warming

Earth's historic climate changes have included ice ages, warming periods and other fluctuations in climate over many centuries.

Some of these historical changes can be attributed to changes in the amount of solar radiation hitting the planet. A drop in solar activity, for example, is believed to have caused the "Little Ice Age," a period of unusually colder climate that lasted from about 1650 to 1850, according to NASA.

However, there is no evidence that any increase in solar radiation could be responsible for the steady increase in global temperatures that scientists are now recording, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

In other words, natural causes cannot be held responsible for global warming. "There is no scientific debate on this point," the NOAA website states.

Indeed, virtually every credible source of scientific research from around the world indicates that human causes — primarily the burning of fossil fuels and the subsequent increase in atmospheric CO2 levels — are responsible for global warming.


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Was The Captain of the Salamis Right in Keeping to His Original Destination to Malta?

Prof. Neils Frenzen
Neils Frenzen is Clinical Professor of Law at the University of Southern California's Gould School of Law

One week ago Italian search and rescue authorities directed two commercial ships, the Liberian-flagged oil tanker Salamis and the Turkish cargo ship Adakent, to divert from their courses to rescue two groups of migrants in distress off the Libyan coast.  Rescues like this take place almost daily, though most are conducted by national armed forces or coastguards.  Rescue operations conducted by commercial vessels raise different legal issues, one of the most important and problematic being where are the rescued persons to be disembarked.

And while disputes periodically arise between Italy and Malta when patrol boats belonging to the armed forces of one country have sought to disembark rescued persons in the other country - usually due to disagreement as to where the closest safe port is located in relation to the place of rescue - at the end of the day if the stand-off is not resolved, an AFM or Guardia di Finanza patrol boat is always able to disembark rescued survivors in their respective home ports.  This is not the case when commercial ships rescue survivors as was demonstrated by Malta's decision not to permit the Salamis to enter Maltese waters for the purpose of disembarking the 102 rescued migrants.

Some government officials characterised the initial decision of the captain of the Salamis to attempt to disembark the rescued migrants in Malta as a violation of international law.  Such an assertion is inaccurate and fails to take into consideration the complicated framework of different international laws - search and rescue, human rights, and refugee - which come in to play when migrants are rescued or otherwise encountered in international waters, particularly when it is likely that there are asylum seekers or other persons in need of protection among the rescued persons.

While Malta's decision to bar the Salamis attracted significantly more international media attention than the events pertaining to the Adakent, these two incidents and the different resolutions highlight important legal issues.  After the two ships rescued and took on board the different groups of migrants, Italian authorities instructed both ships to disembark the rescued migrants in Libya because the migrants had departed from Libya.  The Adakent sailed to Tripoli - its planned destination before the rescue - and turned 96 rescued migrants over to Libyan authorities.  The captain of the Salamis disregarded Italy and Malta's orders to sail to Libya and continued to sail towards Malta - its planned destination before the rescue.

Both ship captains properly carried out their clear legal obligation under international law to rescue the stranded migrants. The more difficult legal question is where should the rescued persons be taken once rescue operations are completed.  While international law does not explicitly answer the question, it does impose the obligation on a ship's captain to disembark persons only in "a place of safety." Since the 102 migrants rescued by the Salamis included Eritreans and Ethiopians it is clear that many of them were asylum seekers and therefore the captain was legally obligated to ignore the Italian and Maltese orders that the migrants be returned to Libya.

Assuming some or all of the 96 migrants rescued by the Adakent were also asylum seekers, the Adakent's captain likewise should have disregarded Italian instructions to return the migrants to Libya.  Both the UNHCR and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) have issued guidelines to ship captains addressing the situations faced by the Salamis and Adakent.  The guidelines are based on the Search and Rescue Convention and the Refugee Convention and provide that if there is some reason to believe that a rescued person is an asylum seeker, the captain is obligated to take that fact into consideration when making a decision as to where to disembark the survivor.

Malta and Italy are well aware that many if not most migrants departing Libya by boat are asylum seekers and are also aware that many of the asylum claims will be granted if the asylum seeker is successful in lodging an application.  Had these two rescues been carried out by AFM or Guardia di Finanza patrol boats rather than the two commercial ships, the patrol boats would have been under a clear legal obligation to disembark the rescued migrants in a location where asylum or other claims for international protection could be properly considered.

The 2012 decision in the Hirsi v Italy case by the European Court of Human Rights condemned the Italian push-back practice which resulted in asylum seekers being returned to Libya without being given an opportunity to make asylum claims.  Neither Italy nor Malta can evade their responsibilities to consider asylum claims by diverting commercial ships to engage in rescue operations and then issuing orders to those commercial ships to return potential asylum seekers to a country such as Libya which is not a signatory to the Refugee Convention and does not provide an adequate alternate procedure to consider claims for protection.

There can be honest disagreement about where rescued migrants are to be disembarked as long as the survivors will be safe and protected when disembarked.  The Search and Rescue Convention obligates countries to coordinate and cooperate among themselves to permit rescuing ships to disembark rescued persons. Malta and Italy as sovereign countries have the right to control their borders, but this sovereign power has to be applied in manner that is consistent with international human rights and refugee law by which they have agreed to be bound.

Reposted rom Malta Today

Captain Morgan's Cannons Found?

Concealed Weapons

Photograph courtesy Facundo Bacardi

Archaeologists Fritz Hanselmann (left) and James Delgado, both of the Waitt Institute, examine some of the guns brought up from shipwrecks near the mouth of Panama's Chagres River in 2010.

The cannons—said to have been used by Capt. Henry Morgan to attack Spanish ships and settlements in the 17th century—are encrusted by organic concretions after almost 350 years on the ocean floor.

The smaller firearms were mounted on the decks of Captain Morgan's ships and used like shotguns during close combat. The larger guns were mounted belowdecks, fired through special windows, and were used against long-range targets, including Spanish forts and warships.

Captain Morgan is thought to have been born in Wales around 1635. Not much is known about his early career as a sailor. By 1660, however, he had demonstrated enough daring and skill to be appointed a captain in a fleet of privateers hired by England to attack and harass Spanish settlements and shipping operations in the New World.

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Causes of Global Warming: Greenhouse Ggases

Left: Naturally occurring greenhouse gases — carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) — normally trap some of the sun’s heat, keeping the planet from freezing. Right: Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, are increasing greenhouse gas levels, leading to an enhanced greenhouse effect. The result is global warming and unprecedented rates of climate change

There are several gases in Earth's atmosphere known as "greenhouse gases" because they exacerbate the greenhouse effect: CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor and ozone are among the most prevalent, according to NASA.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were once commonly used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants (they're now largely phased out by international agreement because they caused significant damage to the ozone layer). CFCs also function as greenhouse gases.

Not all greenhouse gases are the same: Some, like methane, are produced through agricultural practices including livestock manure management. Others, like CO2, largely result from natural processes like respiration and from the burning of fossil fuels.

Additionally, these greenhouses gases don't all contribute equally to the greenhouse effect: Methane, for example, is about 21 times more effective at trapping heat from IR radiation than carbon dioxide, according to the EPA.

This difference in heat-trapping ability is sometimes referred to as a gas's "global-warming potential," or GWP.

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Deepest Wreck Currently Under Excavation in U.S. Waters

 Arm of Exploration


 

Photograph courtesy NOAA

Since the shipwrecks sit in very deep water, researchers must use remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) as their eyes, ears, and hands underwater. A robotic arm (pictured) enables scientists to turn over rocks and pick up artifacts.


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Worst Effects of Global Warming

Conflicts and War

Declining amounts of quality food, water and land may be leading to an increase in global security threats, conflict and war.

National security experts analyzing the current conflict in Sudan's Darfur region suggest that while global warming is not the sole cause of the crisis, its roots may be traced to the impact of climate change, specifically the reduction of available natural resources [source: Seattle Post-Intelligencer]. The violence in Darfur broke out during a time of drought, after two decades of little-to-no rain along with rising temperatures in the nearby Indian Ocean.

Scientists and military analysts alike are theorizing climate change and its consequences such as food and water instability pose threats for war and conflict, suggesting that violence and ecological crises are entangled. Countries suffering from water shortages and crop loss become vulnerable to security trouble, including regional instability, panic and aggression.

Image Credit: Jacob Silberberg/Getty Images

The conflict in Darfur has been partly blamed on stresses caused by global warming.



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Deepest Wreck Currently Under Excavation in U.S. Waters: Anchor Awaits

Photograph courtesy NOAA

Warship, privateer, or passenger ship: The identities of three early 19th-century shipwrecks resting on the seafloor in the Gulf of Mexico (map) could be any number of things. But a group of researchers have spent the past week mapping and excavating these well-preserved finds in order to find out.

Their initial target, dubbed the "Monterey shipwreck," is a copper-clad sailing vessel that came to rest in 4,300 feet (1,330 meters) of water, making it the deepest wreck currently under investigation in U.S. waters, say experts. 

After spending several days exploring the Monterey wreck, the expedition investigated two additional sonar targets less than five miles (eight kilometers) away. They turned out to be two other shipwrecks—one copper-clad and the other a deteriorating wooden ship.

All three vessels had exceptionally well-preserved artifacts including anchors (pictured), eyeglasses, blocks of tallow, leather-bound books, muskets, and cannons.

"We think all three vessels were sailing together," said James Delgado, director of maritime heritage with the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Office of Marine Sanctuaries. They were found in the same area and had the same kinds of bottles and octants, a navigational tool.

Delgado noted that it's likely all three went down at the same time, and quite violently at that.

One of the anchors looks like it was ripped away from its usual position on one of the ships and slid halfway back, he added.

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EARTH

Brief explanations from the perspective of a professional seafarer:

                                                    

1.    Shape of the Earth: The Earth is not a true sphere. Its shape is that of an oblate spheroid, the equatorial diameter being more than polar diameter. The equatorial diameter is 7926.7 statue miles while the polar diameter is 7899.5 km statute miles. In kilometers the equatorial radius is 6378.16 and the polar radius is 6356.77 km. The difference of about 27 miles between these diameters as compared to the average diameter of 7913 miles is so small that the Earth may be considered a true sphere for most purposes.

2.     AXIS: The axis of the Earth is the diameter about which it rotates.

3.    Poles: The geographical poles of the Earth are the two points where the axis meets the Earth’s surface.

The Earth rotates about its axis once a day. This rotation carries each point on the Earth’s surface towards East. West is the direction 180° from East, North is the direction 90° to the left of East, and South the direction 90° to the right of East. The two poles of the Earth are designated North Pole and South Pole, accordingly.  

4.    A Great Circle: is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which passes through the centre of the sphere.

There is only one great circle through any two points on the sphere’s surface, except if the points are at the two ends of a diameter when an infinite number of great circles are possible.

5.    A small circle: is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which does not pass through the centre of the sphere.

6.    Equator: The Equator is a great circle on the surface of the Earth, the plane of which is perpendicular to the Earth’s axis. The Equator divides the Earth into the north and the south hemispheres. Latitudes are measured North or Equator.

Will Earth's Ocean Boil Away?

Yes—a billion years from now, as the sun gets brighter. But could we make it happen sooner through climate change?

 

Venus, the hottest planet in the solar system, may have experienced runaway greenhouse effect early in its history.

...  Venus has a thick atmosphere that is 96.5 percent carbon dioxide, which keeps its surface at nearly 900°F (482°C). The planet's water boiled off to space long ago. Could that really happen on Earth, which is farther from the sun, and where the CO2 level is just now rising past 400 parts per million?

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Captain Morgan's Cannons Found?

Diver Joe Lepore steadies a heavy 17th-century cannon as it's lifted by an airbag from the seafloor near the mouth of Panama's Chagres River  in a recently released picture taken in 2010.

 The newly recovered cannon is among six believed to have belonged to the fleet of 17th-century buccaneer Capt. Henry Morgan, whom later accounts painted as a bloodthirsty pirate.

In 1671 Captain Morgan's current flagship, Satisfaction, hit a rocky reef and sank as he sailed out of the mouth of the Chagres River en route to sacking the Panama Viejo, now called Panama City.

Three more of Captain Morgan's ships either slammed into the same reef or collided with each other and also went down. But the determined Welsh privateer reassembled what remained of his fleet and continued on to plunder the city. Privateers were private sailors under contract to states—in Captain Morgan's case, Britain.

In 2008 an international team of archaeologists found the ships—and their cannons—that sank on that disastrous day. In 2010 the scientists began bringing cannons and other artifacts to the surface, where they'll be treated to remove organic buildup and then displayed in Panama.

The project was a collaborative effort that included the government of Panama, the Waitt Institute for Discovery, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Texas State University, and the National Geographic Society. (The Waitt Institute sponsors the Waitt Grants Program for the Society, which also owns National Geographic News.)



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