Sigiriya Cobra Hood Cave

This is known by the name Cobra Head cave due to the natural shape of the rock itself.

The early Brahmi inscriptions indicate that this had been donated by a chieftain 'Naguliya' to the Sangha.

This cave had been used as a dwelling place for the Buddhist monks or the Sangha between 3rd and the 1st Centuries BC.

A rock cave with a dwelling place- inside construction Sigiriya

A rock cave with a dwelling place Sigiriya

The painting done on the cave ceiling belongs to the 6-7 th Centuries AD.

The Gardens of Sigiriya, Lion Rock

View of one of the pools in the garden complex

The water gardens can be seen in the central section of the western precinct. Three principal gardens are found here. The first garden consists of a plot surrounded by water. It is connected to the main precinct using four causeways, with gateways placed at the head of each causeway. This garden is built according to an ancient garden form known as char bagh, and is one of the oldest surviving models of this form.

The second contains two long, deep pools set on either side of the path. Two shallow, serpentine streams lead to these pools. Fountains made of circular limestone plates are placed here. Underground water conduits supply water to these fountains which are still functional, especially during the rainy season. Two large islands are located on either side of the second water garden. Summer palaces are built on the flattened surfaces of these islands. Two more islands are located farther to the north and the south. These islands are built in a manner similar to the island in the first water garden.
The gardens of Sigiriya, as seen from the summit of the Sigiriya rock

The third garden is situated on a higher level than the other two. It contains a large, octagonal pool with a raised podium on its northeast corner. The large brick and stone wall of the citadel is on the eastern edge of this garden.

The water gardens are built symmetrically on an east-west axis. They are connected with the outer moat on the west and the large artificial lake to the south of the Sigiriya rock. All the pools are also interlinked using an underground conduit network fed by the lake, and connected to the moats. A miniature water garden is located to the west of the first water garden, consisting of several small pools and watercourses. This recently discovered smaller garden appears to have been built after the Kashyapan period, possibly between the 10th and 13th centuries.

The boulder gardens

The boulder gardens consist of several large boulders linked by winding pathways. The gardens extend from the northern slopes to the southern slopes of the hills at the foot of Sigiris rock. Most of these boulders had a building or pavilion upon them; there are cuttings that were used as footings for brick walls and beams.it is a vital component of the spite.

The Sigiriya Rock seen from the Fountain Gardens

The terraced gardens

The terraced gardens are formed from the natural hill at the base of the Sigiriya rock. A series of terraces rises from the pathways of the boulder garden to the staircases on the rock. These have been created by the construction of brick walls, and are located in a roughly concentric plan around the rock. The path through the terraced gardens is formed by a limestone staircase. From this staircase, there is a covered path on the side of the rock, leading to the uppermost terrace where the lion staircase is situated.

 

View of the moat

Sigiriya, Lion Rock: The Mirror Wall

Originally this wall was so well polished that the king could see himself whilst he walked alongside it. Made of a kind of porcelain, the wall is now partially covered with verses scribbled by visitors to the rock. Well preserved, the mirror wall has verses dating from the 8th century. People of all types wrote on the wall, on varying subjects such as love, irony, and experiences of all sorts. Further writing on the mirror wall now has been banned for the protection of old writings of the wall.

Dr Senerat Paranavitana, an eminent Sri Lankan archaeologist, deciphered 685 verses written in the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries CE on the mirror wall.

One such poem in Sinhala is:

    "බුදල්මි. සියොවැ ආමි. සිගිරි බැලිමි. බැලු බැලු බොහො දනා ගී ලීලුයෙන් නොලීමි."

The rough translation is: "I am Budal [the writer's name]. (I) Came alone to see Sigiriya. Since all the others wrote poems, I did not!" He has left an important record that Sigiriya was visited by people beginning a very long time ago.

Sigiriya Lion Rock

Sigiriya consists of an ancient castle built by King Kashyapa during the 5th century. The Sigiriya site has the remains of an upper palace sited on the flat top of the rock, a mid-level terrace that includes the Lion Gate and the mirror wall with its frescoes, the lower palace that clings to the slopes below the rock, and the moats, walls, and gardens that extend for some hundreds of metres out from the base of the rock.

The site is both a palace and a fortress. The upper palace on the top of the rock includes cisterns cut into the rock that still retain water. The moats and walls that surround the lower palace are still exquisitely beautiful.

Rock shelters at the foot of the Sigiriya rock

Sigiriya - the path climbing up the rock fortress

Sigiriya - the stone seat of King Kasyapa

Sigiriya, Lion Rock

Lion Gate

Sigiriya is located in the central Matale District of the Central Province, Sri Lanka in an area dominated by a massive column of rock nearly 200 meters high.

According to the ancient Sri Lankan chronicle the Culavamsa the site was selected by King Kasyapa (477– 495 CE) for his new capital. He built his palace on the top of this rock and decorated its sides with colourful frescoes. 

On a small plateau about halfway up the side of this rock he built a gateway in the form of an enormous lion. 

 
The name of this place is derived from this structure —Sīhāgiri, the Lion Rock. The capital and the royal palace were abandoned after the king's death. It was used as a Buddhist monastery until the 14th century.

Sigiriya today is a UNESCO listed World Heritage Site. It is one of the best preserved examples of ancient urban planning. It is the most visited historic site in Sri Lanka.

Adam's Peak

At the top of Adam's Peak is a small Buddhist temple and the shrine of the strange footprint. It is customary to make offerings here and small coils of silver are offered by those wanting to recover from sickness. Rainwater that falls in the footprint is also said to have special healing properties.

A Buddhist monk venerating the Holy Footprint on Adam's Peak, Sri Lanka

Temple at Adam's Peak

The Legend of Adam's Peak, Sri Lanka

Adam's Peak is one of the most recognisable places in Sri Lanka, yet many people are not aware of the island's famous mountain until they visit it for themselves on their Sri Lanka holidays.



The mountain is held in sacrosanct by followers of four religions: Buddhists, Hindus, Christians and Muslims.



However, long before any of these religions appeared on the island, the mountain was worshipped by the native inhabitants of the island, the Veddas. They named the peak Samanala Kanda after one of the island's four deities. Hindus also have a different name for the peak and call it Sivan Adi Padham. They believe that the giant footprint left on the peak is Shiva's and was left on the mountain during his creation dance when he created the world.



The large footprint is five foot seven inches by two foot six inches wide, but Buddhists believe that the original footprint is even larger and was left by the Buddha on his third and final visit to Sri Lanka. If you are a follower of the Christian religion, then on your Sri Lanka holidays, you'll most probably hear the story of St. Thomas, who brought Christianity to the island. However, the mountain gets that name "Adam" from the Islamic belief that he stood for a thousand years on one foot as penance. The Islamic tradition tells how, when Adam was expelled from heaven, God put him on the peak to make the shock less terrible. This is because Ceylon was believed to the place on earth that most resembled heaven, with Adam's Peak being the closest spot on earth to heaven.



On your Sri Lanka holidays you may want to take a boat trip around the peak as the mountain is most impressive when viewed from the sea. Marco Polo was among one of the explorers who visited. Early Arab seafarers who spotted the peak, described it as the largest mountain in the world. However, the peak is not even the largest in Sri Lanka.



If you want to hike around the island, then the best time to visit is from December to May. This time is popular with pilgrims and gets busiest in the winter months of January and February. The trek takes about four hours and although it is possible to climb Adam's Peak from June to November, mist and rain make the climb much less appealing.



When climbing the mountain on your Sri Lanka holidays you will spot hundreds of beautifully coloured butterflies on your climb, which have earnt Adam's Peak its nickname, Samanalakande or butterfly mountain. Once you've reached the top, you will notice a small Buddhist temple and the shrine of the strange footprint. It is customary to make offerings here and small coils of silver are offered by those wanting to recover from sickness. Rainwater that falls in the footprint is also said to have special healing properties.



Your Sri Lanka holidays just won't be complete without taking a visit to Adam's Peak and after spending time on the spectacular mountain, you'll understand just why the Islamic tale describes it as the closest place on earth to heaven.



Reposted from eSriLankans.com

Adam's Peak Falls

This 10m-high water fall flows from the aquifers of Sri Pada & later on to Maskeli Oya Reservoir near Maskeliya.

Adam’s Peak, also known as Samanalakande (Butterfly Mountain), stands at 7,353 feet. The area has been a pilgrimage place for thousands of years. The existence of a huge footprint on its summit, means that it has come to be regarded as being a holy place. Christians believe it to be the place where Adam first stood when cast out of heaven, whilst Buddhists believe that the footprint belongs to Buddha and refer to the mountain as Sri Pada (Holy Footprint).

Sri Pada or Adam's Peak: Lanka's Holy Mountain

Though not the highest mountain of Sri Lanka, the striking pyramid of Adam's Peak (7,360 ft) is certainly the most remarkable. A depression in the rocky summit resembles a huge footprint, which has been venerated as a sacred sigh from remote antiquity. This was identified by Buddhists as the Buddha's footprint, by Hindus as that of Shiva, and by Muslims as Adam's. Later the Portuguese attributed it to St. Thomas the Apostle.

The Mahawamsa tells how the sacred footprint was imprinted by the departing Buddha on his third visit to Lanka, but the site did not become an object of regular Buddhist pilgrimage until the Polonnaruwa period, when Vijayabahu I built resting houses for pilgrims and King Nissankamalla himself, in the year 1201, climbed to the top and worshipped the spot.

The Muslim tradition of a footprint of Adam, first of the prophets, goes back to gnostic sources as early as the Mahawamsa itself. According to the legend, Adam was hurled from Paradise for his disobedience and stood in penance for a thousand years on one foot at the top of Adam's Peak, after which he was reunited with Eve on Mt. Arafat overlooking Mecca. By the ninth century, this footprint was consequently considered one of the most sacred sites in the world. 

Reposted from Sri Prada.org

 

Sunday Observer Reviews Through Deep Waters

 

‘Through Deep Waters’

Capt. Priyantha de Silva, a veteran master mariner’s novel ‘Through Deep Waters’ will be launched on 7th April at 5.00 p.m. at the Sri Lanka Foundation Institute.

‘Through Deep Waters’ unfolds the eventful years spent by a Sri Lankan sailing over the seven seas of the world. He captures vividly the thrills, joys and the agony of meeting, interacting and parting with many a soul from different walks of life, from different continents, during his extraordinary journeys round the globe.

“Through Deep Waters’ this master mariner reminiscences his journey from the very beginning. It is not only about the life and experiences at sea but also on dry land. The pages of ‘Through Deep Waters’ carry a message to readers of all ages. Media consultant Edwin Ariyadasa will deliver the keynote address whilst Edmund Jayasuriya and E. M. G. Edirisinghe will evaluate the new book. Veteran media personality Daya Abeysekara will conduct the proceedings.

Reposted From Sunday Observer

Ancient History of the Sinhalese

A section of the mural at Ajanta in Cave No 17,depicts the 'coming of Sinhala'.The prince (Prince Vijaya) is seen in both of groups of elephants and riders

Indo-Aryan emigration from India in the 5th century B.C. came to form the largest ethnic group on Sri Lanka today, the Sinhalese. Sinhalese and Tamil rulers fought for dominance over the island. The Tamils, primarily Hindus, claimed the northern section of the island and the Sinhalese, who are predominantly Buddhist, controlled the south. In 1505 the Portuguese took possession of Ceylon until the Dutch India Company usurped control (1658–1796). The British took over in 1796, and Ceylon became an English Crown colony in 1802. The British developed coffee, tea, and rubber plantations. On Feb. 4, 1948, after pressure from Ceylonese nationalist leaders (which briefly unified the Tamil and Sinhalese), Ceylon became a self-governing dominion of the Commonwealth of Nations. 


Ancient History

The genesis myth and early recorded history of the Sinhalese is chronicled in two documents, the Mahavamsa, written in Pāli around the 4th century CE, and the much later Chulavamsa (probably penned in the 13th century CE by the Buddhist monk Dhammakitti). These are ancient sources which cover the histories of the powerful ancient Sinhalese kingdoms of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa which lasted for 1500 years. The Mahavansa describes the existence of fields of rice and reservoirs, indicating a well-developed agrarian society. The folklore of the Sinhalese people also speaks of many royal dynasties prior to the Sinha royal dynasty: Manu, Tharaka, Mahabali, Raavana, etc.as per the oldest Indian epic poemRamayan and consists many places in relation to this story such as Adam's Bridge (Rama Setu),Sita eliya and falls(where Princes Sita stayed and bathed)Ravana Falls (where King Ravana Bathed and enjoyed).       

According to the Mahavamsa, the Sinhalese are descended from the exiled Prince Vijaya and his party of seven hundred followers who arrived on the island in 543 BCE. Vijaya and his followers were said to have arrived in Sri Lanka after being exiled from the city of Sinhapura in West Bengal, East India. Buddhism is then said to have been introduced to the Sinhalese from India by Mahinda, son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka the Great, during the 3rd century BCE.

Medieval history

During the middle ages Sri Lanka was well known for its agricultural prosperity under the Parakramabahu in Polonnaruwa during which period the island was famous around the world as the rice mill of the east. Later in the 13th century the country's administrative provinces were divided into three independent kingdoms: Kingdom of Sitawaka, Kingdom of Kotte and the Kandyan kingdom. The invasion by Magha in the 13th century led to migrations by the Sinhalese to areas not under his control. This migration was followed by a period of conflict among the Sinhalese chiefs who tried to exert political supremacy. Parakramabahu VI in the 15th century was the only Sinhalese king during this time who could bring back the unity of the whole island. Trade also increased during this period, as Sri Lanka began to trade Cinammon and a large number of Muslim traders were bought into the island.

In the 15th century a Kandyan Kingdom formed which divided the Sinhalese politically into low-country and up-country.

Tamils in Sri Lanka

Megalithic burial urns or jar found in Pomparippu, North Western, Sri Lanka dated to at least five to two centuries before Common Era. These are similar to Megalithic burial jars found in South India and the Deccan during similar time frame.

 
Tamils, the second-largest ethnic group on the island, were originally from the Tamil region of India and emigrated between the 3rd century B.C. and A.D. 1200.  

There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of the Tamil people in Sri Lanka, prior to the medieval Chola period (c. 10th century AD). One theory states that there was not an organized Tamil presence in Sri Lanka until the invasions from what is now South India in the 10th century AD; another theory contends that Tamil people were the original inhabitants of the island. Yet according to another theory cultural diffusion, rather than migration of people, spread the Tamil language from peninsular India into an existing Mesolithic population, centuries before the Christian era.

However according to Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka, they believe that they are lineal descendants of the aboriginal Naga and Yaksha people of Sri Lanka. The "Nakar" used the cobra totem known as "Nakam" in the Tamil language, which is still part of the Hindu Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka today as a subordinate deity.

 Sri Lankan Tamils

There are two groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka: the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils. The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftaincies called Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations. Furthermore, there is a significant Tamil-speaking Muslim population in Sri Lanka; however, unlike Tamil Muslims from India, they are not ethnic Tamils and are therefore listed as a separate ethnic group in official statistics.

Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital Colombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands. Historically both groups have seen themselves as separate communities, although there is a greater sense of unity since 1980s.

Under the terms of an agreement reached between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about 40 percent of the Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and many of the remainder were repatriated to India. By the 1990s, most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship.

Ancient History of Sri Lanka

The Sigiriya rock fortress. Sri Lanka

According to the Mahāvamsa, a chronicle written in the Pāli language, the ancient period of Sri Lanka begins in 543 BC with the landing of Vijaya, a semi-legendary king who sailed with 700 followers on eight ships 860 nautical miles to Sri Lanka from the southwest coast of what is now the Rarh region of West Bengal.] He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern day Mannar. Vijaya is the first of the approximately 189 native monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as the Dipavamsa, Mahāvamsa, Chulavamsa, and Rājāvaliya . Sri Lankan dynastic history spanned a period of 2,359 years from 543 BC to AD 1815, when the land became part of the British Empire.

The Kingdom of Sri Lanka moved to Anuradhapura in 380 BC, during the reign of Pandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital of the country for nearly 1,400 years. Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of structures (constructions) such as tanks, dagobas and palaces. The society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC, Bhikkhu Mahinda the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale, carrying the message of Buddhism. His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population. Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of Nalanda which was destroyed by Mohammed Kilji. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries. In 245 BC, bhikkhuni Sangamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened. It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world.

Sri Lanka first experienced a foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India.[39] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by a Chola king named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. He built Ruwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya. During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava. These invaders were all subsequently driven back. There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statue were built during the reign of Dhatusena.

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country to have a female ruler: Queen Anula, who reigned during 47–42 BC. Sri Lankan monarchs completed some remarkable constructions like Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign of Kashyapa I. Sigiriya is a rock fortress surrounded by an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. The fifth-century palace is also renowned for its frescos on rock surfaces. It has been declared by UNESCO as one of the seven World Heritage Sites in Sri Lanka. Among other structures, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate with rainy and dry seasons, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notable. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics that allows water to flow outside the dam, keeping pressure on the dam to a minimum. Ancient Sri Lanka was the first country in the world to establish a dedicated hospital, in Mihintale in the 4th century. It was also the leading exporter of cinnamon in the ancient world. It maintained close ties with European civilisations including the Roman Empire. For example, King Bhatikabhaya (22 BC—AD 7) sent an envoy to Rome who brought back red coral which was used to make an elaborate netlike adornment for the Ruwanwelisaya. In addition, Sri Lankan male dancers witnessed the assassination of Caligula. When Queen Cleopatra sent her son Cesarian into hiding, he was headed to Sri Lanka.  Bhikkhuni Devasāra and ten other fully ordained bhikkhunis from Sri Lanka went to China and established the bhikkhuni sāsana there in AD 429.

Second Novel to be Launched 2014

 

John Priyantha de Silva – the only Sri Lankan seagoing captain to write a book in English

Captain John Priyantha de Silva, a veteran master mariner, is planning to launch his second book,

"The Sound of Many Waters" in 2014

"I am now adding the final touches to this novel, which deals more extensively on my life and times as a sailor in a career spanning 34 years", he said.

"I dedicate about four hours each day to my writing", he said in a telephone interview, while his cargo vessel was sailing out of the Trincomalee port for Padang, Indonesia last week.

"The calm serenity that surrounds a person in the middle of the ocean is a peace of mind that cannot be bought even for a million dollars," the seasoned sailor reasoned.

Capt. Priyantha de Silva’s first book ‘Through Deep Waters’, which captured vividly the thrills, joys and the agony of meeting, interacting and parting with many a soul from different walks of life, from different continents, during his extraordinary journeys around the globe, was launched in April this year.

"At that time I was the only Sri Lankan on the ship. I did not have the company of fellowmen and felt alone.

It was during this time that I sat down and wrote - hour after hour, taking a break only for tea in the evenings", he recalled.

During his three decades plus sea faring career, de Silva has served as a captain for 18 years. "My novels give expression to the long eventful years sailing over the seven seas".
Author and mariner, Priyantha de Silva has emerged as the only Sri Lankan seagoing captain to write a book in English summing up his life's experience.

"Be it at land or at sea, my heart will always remain at home, with my mother and my loved ones", he said. "My happiness is in the home".

"In my second book, I will also be recounting some of the nightmares I have faced, particularly in choppy seas, during my long seafaring career which has taken me to 68 countries across the Pacific, Australia, Papua

New Guinea and the Pacific Islands", de Silva said.

"It will be more descriptive and educative about matters of the world, both historically and geographically", he explained.

Priyantha is an old boy of St. Joseph's College, Colombo.


Reposted from the The Island-News

Some Findings on Prehistoric Sri Lanka

by KAMALIKA PIERIS

Batadombalena Archaeological Site

Sri Lanka is one of the best sources of prehistoric studies in South Asia. Over 180 prehistoric sites have been found including undisturbed human habitats dating to 100,000 years perhaps even 200,000 or 500,000 years. 20,000 years is reached at excavation level of 8 feet depth in Sri Lanka.

Stone Age settlements have been found in a series of cave excavations. Dates were based on radio-carbon assay and thermo luminescence analysis. Tests were done on more than 50 sections of these sites. The excavated sites held skeletons. India has only about six or seven skeletons in the whole of India. Sri Lanka had many more.

Batadomba Lena site near Kuruwita, in Ratnapura has yielded some of the earliest evidence

The huge rock where the Batadomba Lena is situated

of Homo sapiens in South Asia. The site is dated 31,000 to 12,000 BP. Seven adults and one child were recovered from a level dated to 18,000 BP. Food remains included mollusks, large cats resembling lions and tigers, giant squirrels, porcupines, monkeys and arboreal gastropods. Shell beads, and small points of bone and antler, were also found.

Beli Lena, Kitulgala dated 30,000 to 3500 BP yielded 26 skeletons and an enormous quantity of food remains, People had eaten a lot of mollusks, which are soft bodied hard shelled animals like snails. They also ate giant squirrel, porcupine, flying squirrel, small rodents, pig, sambhur, and gal veralu. Much of the food now available in the wild would have been available to prehistoric man. These are eaten today by the forest villagers of Sinharaja. Findings also indicated that rock salt had been brought in from the coast.

Several hearths were excavated at Beli Lena, They appear to have been used for preparing food. They were small indicating that they would have been used for small groups. Seeds of wild banana (ati kehel), kekuna and wild breadfruit (wal del) were found. Beli lena man seems to have baked the wild breadfruit under hot ashes and eaten the aril and seeds. This finding is the first indication of plant exploitation during the Mesolithic period in the Indian sub continent.

Fa Hsien cave in Yatagampitiya near Bulathsihala in Kalutara district had six burials including children and infants. Two skeletons were coated with red ochre.More than 15 skeletons were recovered from Bellan Bandi Palassa near Embilitiya .These findings indicate that the minimum size of the hunter gatherer bands in Sri Lanka would have been 15-25 individuals with maximum about 50.

Aligala site, near Sigiriya yielded food remains of mollusks, wild boar, purple faced leaf monkey, and grey langur, which would have been formidable game to track. Also small game, porcupine, flying fox, black necked hare and iguana. Bones had been subject to pounding, burning, cutting and scraping. The lime quarries at Ambalantota and Hambantota also provided evidence of human settlements. They contain shell deposits (mizzens) of what the ancients had eaten. Skeletons perhaps 6,000 years old were also found.

A limited amount of prehistoric cave art was found in the eastern coast. Twenty items were found in a sequence. Rock art was also found at Uva, Tantirimale and Dorawaka (Kegalla district.) Drawings included bow and arrow, elephants, leopard, iguana .and humans.

Siran Deraniyagala says "Ours was the earliest form of stone tool technology." The geometric microliths found in Batadomba Lena make this site Asia’s earliest reliably dated site for such implements. This is so significant that Batadomba Lena has been considered for a World Heritage site.

Stone tools dating to 30,000 BP were also found at Kitulgala Beli lena. Also at Alu lena, Attangoda near Kegalle dated to 10,500 BP. Excavations in coastal deposits near Bundala and Patirajawela yielded a small flake stone industry dated to 125,000 or 75,000 BP. Bundala had similar material. Ancient Sinhala man eventually used very sophisticated tools, mainly quartz. Europe took to stone tools only 12,000 years ago.

Homo sapiens started in Africa. The next link is provided by Bundala. Bundala site yielded tools which were 125,000 years old. The tools were very advanced. Bundala findings provide a link on how Homo sapiens moved after leaving Africa . These findings are very important. Nothing comparable has been found elsewhere. Sailing time from Sunda Straits to Australia was two weeks. The ocean current goes from Timor to North Australia but does not return, so those who drifted to Australia got stuck there.

Home sapiens and his ancestor had lived side by side in Sri Lanka together with extinct animals. Ceylon has produced fossils of man like beings who belong to the transition stage from ape to man. This discovery bridges the gap that had existed between findings in Africa and those in Java and China. The fossils were first found in gem pits in Ratnapura. The fossils were named ‘Homo sinhaleyus Deraniyagala ‘and ‘Homo sapiens balangodensis’. ‘Balangoda man’ is dated to the middle period of the Stone Age. Veddahs are linked to them.

Fossils of Balangoda Man were found at Fa Hsien, Bellan Bandi Pellassa, Beli Lena and Batadomba Lena sites. Remains of at least 30 individuals have been found. Fossils were also found at Tun Modera on Vak Oya stream near Labugama. There is also evidence of habitation in Pal Horu Kanda on Labugama estate. Remains of kitchen debris and implements were found at these sites.

Balangoda man was taller than today’s man and far more active. Estimated stature is 174 cm for males and 166 for females, which are much greater than the present day height in Sri Lanka which is 160 cm for males and 150 cm for females. The lower jaw was very robust, the chin pointed, teeth usually large. Balangoda man had the largest teeth of all pre-historic people. Balangoda man ate a wide range of animals including monkeys, porcupines, spotted deer, birds such as spur and jungle fowl, snakes, pythons and rat snakes, hard and soft shelled terrapins, fish, freshwater crustaceans and mollusks. Today, there are Sinhalese living in the remoter villages of Sinharaja who do not hesitate to eat most animals

Balangoda Man appears to have settled in every nook and corner of Sri Lanka ranging from the damp and cold high plains such as Maha Eliya (Horton Plains) to the arid lowlands of Mannar and Wilpattu and the steamy equatorial rainforests of Sabaragamuwa. The camps were small, rarely exceeding 50 square meters in area suggesting occupation by not more than a couple of nuclear families. Balangoda Man kept domestic dogs. The indigenous ‘Sinhala hound' resembles other early dogs such as the dingo of Australia.

In the late Stone Age, Homo sapiens moved from food collection to food production. Food production developed at different times in different parts of the globe. Horton Plains has emerged as one of these centers of origin. Prematilaka says there was domestication of oats and barley in 17,000 BP in Horton Plains . . . There was cattle rearing as well. Plant domestication started in Sri Lanka round the same time as in the Fertile Crescent of Turkey, Syria, Jordan and Palestine.

Diane Hawkey analysed prehistoric dental data. She found that Sri Lanka data showed affinity with recent Melanesian and Australian aborigines. She also found that Iron age Sri Lankans were more similar to present day Sinhalese than to Tamils, Veddahs or Stone Age Sri Lankans. The data showed gene drift, not gene flows. This means that prehistoric south Asian populations were indigenous populations. The emphasis till now was on external population flows into South Asia. However she found that Sinhalese in Pomparippu came from Bay of Bengal region.

Sri Lanka seems to have leapt from the Stone Age to the protohistoric Iron Age by-passing the Bronze Age. The only evidence of the Bronze Age is a tiny piece of copper found in Mantota excavations. Iron technology could be seen in Sri Lanka by 10,000 BC. The 1984 Anuradhapura excavations found evidence of Iron Age. Iron tools were found at the level dated to 900 BC. There are similar findings in very small amounts at Sigiriya and Tissamaharama, but nothing like the massive find at Anuradhapura.

Ibbankatuwa site findings indicate that at the proto historic level, the ancients had houses which were fairly strong, made of granite and stone with clay walls having thickness of 30 to 40 centimeters. Ibbankatuwa appeared to be a semi urban site inhabited by an elite group. There were grinding stones and terra cotta dice indicating an indoor game. Archaeologists complain that Buddhist monks have destroyed possible prehistoric archaeological findings by clearing caves and fumigating them. This prevents carbon dating. Monks continue to take over caves even today, thereby eliminating useful findings.

The writings of P.E.P Deraniyagala, D. Hawkey, T.W. Wikramanayake and talks by Siran Deraniyagala and H. Namalgamuwa were used for this essay.


Reposted from the Island

Prehistoric era of Sri Lanka

‘Pannan Kanda’ is a mountain which is situated at the village of Mawela in Balangoda area in Rathnapura districtin Sri Lanka.

The earliest archaeological evidence of human colonization in Sri Lanka appears at the site of Balangoda. Balangoda Man arrived on the island about 34,000 years ago and have been identified as Mesolithic hunter gatherers who lived in caves. Several of these caves, including the well known Batadombalena and the Fa-Hien Rock cave, have yielded many artifacts from these people who are currently the first known inhabitants of the island.

Balangoda Man probably created Horton Plains, in the central hills, by burning the trees in order to catch game. However, the discovery of oats and barley on the plains at about 15,000 BC suggests that agriculture had already developed at this early date.

Several minute granite tools (about 4 centimetres in length), earthenware, remnants of charred timber, and clay burial pots date to the Mesolithic stone age. Human remains dating to 6000 BC have been discovered during recent excavations around a cave at Varana Raja Maha vihara and in the Kalatuwawa area.

Cinnamon is native to Sri Lanka and has been found in Ancient Egypt as early as 1500 BC, suggesting early trade between Egypt and the island's inhabitants. It is possible that Biblical Tarshish was located on the island. James Emerson Tennent identified Sri Lanka with Galle.

The protohistoric Early Iron Age appears to have established itself in South India by at least as early as 1200 BC, if not earlier (Possehl 1990; Deraniyagala 1992:734). The earliest manifestation of this in Sri Lanka is radiocarbon-dated to c. 1000-800 BC at Anuradhapura and Aligala shelter in Sigiriya (Deraniyagala 1992:709-29; Karunaratne and Adikari 1994:58; Mogren 1994:39; with the Anuradhapura dating corroborated by Coningham 1999). It is very likely that further investigations will push back the Sri Lankan lower boundary to match that of South India.

Archaeological evidence for the beginnings of the Iron age in Sri Lanka is found at Anuradhapura, where a large city–settlement was founded before 900 BC. The settlement was about 15 hectares in 900 BC, but by 700 BC it had expanded to 50 hectares. A similar site from the same period has also been discovered near Aligala in Sigiriya.

who still live in the central, Uva and north-eastern parts of the island, are probably direct descendants of the first inhabitants, Balangoda man. They may have migrated to the island from the mainland around the time humans spread from Africa to the Indian subcontinent.

Around 500 BC, Sri Lankans developed a unique hydraulic civilization. Achievements include the construction of the largest reservoirs and dams of the ancient world as well as enormous pyramid-like Stupa (Dagoba) architecture. This phase of Sri Lankan culture was profoundly influenced by early Buddhism.[citation needed]

Buddhist scriptures note three visits by the Buddha to the island to see the Naga Kings, who are said to be snakes that can take the form of a human at will. Snake transformation of the kings are thought to be symbolic and not based on historical fact.

The earliest surviving chronicles from the island, the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, say that tribes of Yakkhas, Nagas (cobra worshippers) and Devas (god worshippers) inhabited the island prior to the migration of Vijaya.

Pottery has been found at Anuradhapura bearing Brahmi script and non-Brahmi writing and date back to 600 BC – one of the oldest examples of the script.

ISSN: 1391 - 0531	Sunday March 30, 2008	Vol. 42 - No 44
TV Times
‘Through Deep Waters’ The maiden book 'Through Deep Waters' by Capt. John Priyantha de Silva, a veteran master mariner will be launched on April 7 at 5.00 pm. at the Sri Lanka Foundation Institute. Through Deep Waters' unfolds the eventful years spent by a Sri Lankan sailing over the seven seas of the world. He captures vividly the thrills, joys and the agony of meeting, interacting and parting with many a soul from different walks of life, from different continents, during his extraordinary journeys round the globe. 'Through Deep Waters' this master mariner reminiscences his journey from the very beginning. It is not only about the life and experiences at sea but also on dry land. The pages of 'Through Deep Waters' carry a message to readers of all ages. Media consultant Edwin Ariyadasa will deliver the keynote address whilst Edmund Jayasuriya and E.M.G. Edirisinghe will evaluate the new book. Veteran media personality Daya Abeysekara will conduct the proceedings.

History of Sri Lanka

The island of Sri Lanka appears to have been inhabited since at least 34,000 years before the present. Archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture began as early as 15,000 BCE, perhaps reaching the island along with the ancestors of the aboriginal Veddah people.

Sinhalese immigrants from northern India likely reached Sri Lanka around the 6th century BCE. They may have established one of the earliest great trade emporiums on earth; Sri Lankan cinnamon appears in Egyptian tombs from 1,500 BCE.

By about 250 BCE, Buddhism had reached Sri Lanka, brought by Mahinda, the son of Ashoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire. The Sinhalese remained Buddhist even after most mainland Indians had converted to Hinduism. Classical Sinhalese civilization relied on complicated irrigation systems for intensive agriculture; it grew and prospered from 200 BCE to about 1200 CE.

Trade flourished between China, Southeast Asia, and Arabia by the first few centuries of the common era. Sri Lanka was a key stopping point on the southern, or sea-bound, branch of the Silk Road. Ships stopped there not only to restock on food, water and fuel, but also to buy cinnamon and other spices. The ancient Romans called Sri Lanka "Taprobane," while Arab sailors knew it as "Serendip."

In 1212, ethnic Tamil invaders from the Chola Kingdom in southern India drove the Sinhalese south. The Tamils brought Hinduism with them.

In 1505, a new kind of invader appeared on Sri Lanka's shores. Portuguese traders wanted to control the sea-lanes between the spice islands of southern Asia; they also brought missionaries, who converted a small number of Sri Lankans to Catholicism. The Dutch, who expelled the Portuguese in 1658, left an even stronger mark on the island. The legal system of the Netherlands forms the basis for much of modern Sri Lankan law.

In 1815, a final European power appeared to take control of Sri Lanka. The British, already holding the mainland of India under their colonial sway, created the Crown Colony of Ceylon. UK troops defeated the last native Sri Lankan ruler, the King of Kandy, and began to govern Ceylon as an agricultural colony that grew rubber, tea, and coconuts.

After more than a century of colonial rule, in 1931, the British granted Ceylon limited autonomy. During World War II, however, Britain used Sri Lanka as a forward post against the Japanese in Asia, much to the irritation of Sri Lankan nationalists. The island nation became fully independent on February 4, 1948, several months after the Partition of India and the creation of independent India and Pakistan in 1947.

In 1971, tensions between the Sinhalese and Tamil citizens of Sri Lanka bubbled over into armed conflict. Despite attempts at a political solution, the country erupted into civil war in July of 1983; the war would continue until 2009, when government troops defeated the last of the Tamil Tiger insurgents.

Through Deep Waters: A perspective of a mariner

Through Deep Waters A perspective of a mariner

 

Capt. John  Priyantha de Silva, a veteran mariner will launch his novel

Through Deep Waters unfolds the eventful years spent by a Sri Lankan, sailing over the seven seas of the world. He captures vividly the thrills, joys and the agonies of meeting, interacting and parting with many, from different walks of life, from different continents, during his extraordinary journeys round the globe.

Through Deep Waters, this master mariner reminisces his journeys from the beginning, about his experience at sea as well as on land. The pages of Through Deep Waters carry a message to readers of all ages.

Media consultant Edwin Ariyadasa will deliver the keynote address.EdmundJayasuriya and E. M. G. Edirisinghe will evaluate the new book. Veteran media personality Daya Abeysekara will conduct the proceedings.

seas of the world. He captures vividly the thrills, joys and the agonies of meeting, interacting and parting with many, from different walks of life, from different continents, during his extraordinary journeys round the globe.


Reposted from Nation  

Coral Reefs Are Producing a Chemical That Staves Off Global Warming

Coral reefs have long been thought to be unusually sensitive to the effects of global warming — but as it turns out, they’re not as helpless as we thought. According to new research published in Nature, when they’re under stress, coral can emit a chemical that cools down the local climate.

The chemical is called dimethylsulfoniopropionate, or DMSP, and it can increase the production of clouds in the coral’s immediate area by seeding the atmosphere with sulfur aerosols, which water vapor condenses around. More clouds mean cooler temperatures — not overall, alas (we can’t rely on coral to clean up our messes), but in the local area and the short term.

Of course, that means that the more coral die from global warming, the fewer resources they’ll have. But maybe that will cause so much stress that they’ll pump out DMSP at an even faster rate! Man, if only we could all produce stress-related chemicals that temporarily alleviated whatever was bugging us.

Capt. Wasantha travels 'Through Deep Waters'

Capt. John Priyantha de Silva, a veteran master mariner's novel 'Through Deep Waters' will be launched at the Sri Lanka Foundation Institute on April 7 at 5 p.m.

Through Deep Waters' unfolds the eventful years spent by a Sri Lankan sailing over the seven seas of the world. He captures vividly the thrills, joys and the agony of meeting, interacting and parting with many a soul from different walks of life, from different continents, during his extraordinary journeys round the globe.

'Through Deep Waters' this master mariner reminiscences his journey from the very beginning. It is not only about the life and experiences at sea but also on dry land. The pages carry a message to readers of all ages.

Media consultant Edwin Ariyadasa will deliver the keynote address whilst Edmund Jayasuriya and E.M.G. Edirisinghe will evaluate the book. Veteran media personality Daya Abeysekara will conduct the proceedings.


Reposted from Daily News Online

Through Deep Waters by Captain John Priyantha de Silva Launched at the Sri Lanka Foundation

Through Deep Waters by Captain John Priyantha de Silva was launched at the Sri Lanka Foundation on amidst a pleasant downpour.  

Family, friends and well wishers were present to welcome author Captain John Priyantha de Silva to his destination, after years of tumultuous  literary sailing.

The book was reviewed and discussed by Kalakeerthi Rohana Pradeepa Edwin Ariyadasa, E.M.G. Edirisinghe and Edmund Jayasuriya.

Kalakeerthi Rohana Pradeepa Edwin Ariyadasa observed the springing of new literary talent from the armed forces and went on to commend the complexity with which Captain Priyantha de Silva has been able to  make a picture perfect record  of his memories from childhood. 


'Romantic spirit' 

"His autobiography is not only a rosy picture," observed Ariyadasa and went on to speak at length about the 'romantic spirit' of the author.

"Romance has been an outstanding feature in his life," said Ariyadasa and went on to speak of the writers 'international affairs' that sent ripples of laughter from the calm and engrossed audience.

Literary maestro Edwin Ariyadasa went on to say that the book Through Deep Waters is not only a celebration of family life but a celebration of the religious spirit.

"For 21 years he has had a unique childhood," observed Ariyadasa yet again venturing out on to  another unusual feature  of the book and went on to applaud the writer's obedience to his parents.

Another literary celebrity, E.M.G. Edirisinghe went on to say that he  had been enriched by the book. "It  is written in simple language and is so spirited," said Edirisinghe and went on to observe that Captain John Priyantha de Silva thanked God every time he achieved something.

"Sea life can be boring and frustrating," said Edirisinghe and went on to appreciate the writer's style that takes the reader to a "different world."

Captures meaningful moments

Another great literary personality in Sri Lanka Edmund Jayasuriya went on to draw an argument as to whether the book is an autobiography, novel, journal, letter, log or memoir.
"It is not an autobiography, but a memoir," observed Jayasuriya, boldly and rightly,  and went on to say that it is a memoir that captures  and highlights meaningful moments in one's past.

Clearly moved by Through Deep Waters, Jayasuriya said that the book is a blend of humor, tragedy and pathos.

Through Deep Waters is a different experience on the shelves of Sri Lankan bookstores. The book is unusual - for it takes the reader the world over. It is about people, about life and about experiences.

Using real characters, the writer, with his literary skill has presented to us a book that will tell us that life is not all smooth sailing - that here, there and everywhere, human feelings, human relationships and human bonding reign supreme.


- Ranee Mohamed

Reposted from The Sunday Leader on Line 

Nicaragua Approves Rival to Panama Canal, to be Built by Chinese Company

In this photo, people push a boat into Lake Nicaragua, near Granada, Nicaragua. A multi-billion dollar Chinese plan to plow a massive rival to the Panama Canal across the middle of Nicaragua was headed for approval by the leftist-controlled National Assembly Thursday, June 13, 2013, capping a lightning-fast approval process that has provoked deep skepticism among shipping experts and intense concern among environmentalists.

 
 A multi-billion dollar proposal to plow a massive rival to the Panama Canal across the middle of Nicaragua was approved by the leftist-controlled National Assembly Thursday, capping a lightning-fast approval process that has provoked deep skepticism among shipping experts and concern among environmentalists.

The assembly dominated by President Daniel Ortega's Sandinista Front voted to grant a 50-year concession to plan and build the canal --with an option for another 50 -- to a Hong Kong-based company whose only previous experience appears to be in telecommunications.

The legislation approved Thursday by a 61-28 vote contains no specific route for a canal and virtually no details of its financing or economic viability.  It grants the Hong Kong company exclusive rights to plan and build the canal in exchange for Nicaragua receiving a minority share of any eventual profits.

Ortega's backers say the Chinese will transform one of the region's poorest countries by turning a centuries-old dream of a Nicaraguan trans-ocean canal into reality, bringing tens of thousands of jobs to the country and fueling an economic boom that would mimic the canal-driven prosperity of nearby Panama.

The currently estimated cost is $40 billion.

"One of Nicaragua's great riches is its geographic position, that's why this idea has always been around," Sandinista congressman Jacinto Suarez said during the legislative debate Thursday. "Global trade demands that this canal is built because it's necessary. The data shows that maritime transport is constantly growing and that makes this feasible. Opposing it is unpatriotic."

While the Hong Kong company has said almost nothing about the canal's route, it would certainly cross Lake Nicaragua, the country's primary source of fresh water. If one of the world's largest infrastructure projects ever is actually built, the water used by the canal's locks could seriously deplete the lake, environmentalists say.

Global engineering and shipping experts say those concerns are real, but lowered demand for massive container shipping and increasing competition from potential routes, including the warming Arctic, may mean that the Nicaraguan canal will simply prove economically unfeasible, adding to a long list of unrealized visions of moving riches from sea to sea across the country.

Either way, the quick march of the canal project through the National Assembly has set off a backlash from environmental and other activists, who held a series of marches this week to protest the granting of rights to the HK Nicaragua Canal Development Investment Co., without any open bidding process or details of its financing.

"Nicaragua isn't for sale. Nicaragua belongs to all Nicaraguans and isn't the private property of Ortega and his family," the Movement for Nicaragua, a coalition of civil-society groups, said in an open letter to the country Wednesday.

When he took power in 1979, Ortega was a socialist firebrand whom the U.S. government tried to overthrow by backing Contra rebels in the 1980s. He was voted out of office in 1990 but returned after winning the 2006 election. Since then, critics allege, the 67-year-old leader has maneuvered to become president for life, using courts and electoral institutions that are stacked with appointees from his Sandinista Front.

In 2009 the Sandinista majority on the Supreme Court overruled limits on consecutive terms set by the Nicaraguan constitution, allowing Ortega to run for his third 5-year term. He won 64 percent of the vote, though opposition parties allege that total was inflated by fraud.

Other recent Nicaraguan presidents also have repeatedly tried to win support for a canal, without much success. Ortega, though has finally agreed on a formal deal.

North American companies are increasingly looking to factories and suppliers in the U.S. and Latin America rather than in Asia, where rising salaries in China are making manufacturing less appealing for foreign companies.

In addition, the global economic slowdown of recent years means large numbers of ships are unused, perhaps 5 percent of the global fleet. Many vessels are scheduled to be completed in coming years, meaning the percentage of idled ships could grow to more than 20 percent, experts said.

And global warming means that even the Arctic may become a viable alternative to crossing Central America by canal.

"Looking at the changing flows and where the growth is in the world economy, personally I'm not seeing it. I wouldn't invest my money in it," said Rosalyn Wilson, a senior business analyst at the Delcan Corporation, a Toronto-based transportation consultancy and author of the U.S. logistics industry's annual report.

"It's addressing a need that definitely is not here now and I'm not sure if it's `a build it and they will come sort of thing,"' she said.

Eduardo Lugo, a Panamanian port logistics consultant who worked for 10 years studying traffic demand for the Panama Canal's expansion plan, also questioned whether global traffic demand would support the high costs of the Nicaragua project.

"There's going be some growth in world trade. The big question is, what routes is that trade going to move on. That's the real challenge that Nicaragua faces," said Paul Bingham, the head of economic analysis at engineering planning firm CDM Smith, which specializes in large water and transportation infrastructure. "It's very easy to say trade is going to grow but that doesn't mean that Nicaragua is going to be in a competitive position to take advantage of it ... I'm not convinced right now."

Backers of previous canal plans have argued that the Nicaraguan route would prove more economical than Panama's because it would handle ships with far larger cargo capacity.

But the Nicaraguan path would have to be roughly three times as long as than Panama's, which is about 50 miles (80 kilometers) long, a fact that Panama Canal Administrator Jorge Quijano said "gives us even more of a competitive advantage."

"It isn't easy," Quijano said. "The terrain is really complex, more than ours."

Wilson also said the project could have serious impacts on Lake Nicaragua,  also known as Cocibolca, because of the amount of fresh water that would be used to operate the canal.

"It takes a lot of water to run locks," Wilson said. "Is it going to be done in such a way that's not trading away another part of the country's economy down the line?"

"We're at a crossroads because either you use Lake Cocibolca for floating boats or you use it for drinking water, but you can't use it for both things at once," said Victor Campos, assistant director of the Humboldt Center, an environmental organization.

Roberto Troncoso, president of the Panamanian Association of Business Executives, said China's government may be encouraging the new canal as a way to establish a route independent of the Panama Canal, which is perceived as remaining under heavy U.S. influence.

"The money is totally irrelevant," he said. "We're talking about national hegemony. China is looking to turn itself into the predominant economic power.  Whoever dominates trade, dominates the world."

The United States has taken no official position on the Nicaraguan canal.

The Chinese company has declined to comment on the record about its funding and backers.

According to local records, HK Nicaragua Canal Development Investment Co. head Wang Jing has also been a director of about a dozen other companies, some current and others that have been dissolved.

He also heads Beijing Xinwei, a mid-sized telecommunications firm that, according to Chinese media, was partly owned by a large government telecoms equipment company, Datang, which sold its shares in a 2010 restructuring. Chinese media have reported that Beijing Xinwei made a profit of 650 million yuan (about $100 million) in the first eight months of last year.

Panama and Nicaragua were the top contenders for the route of a trans-ocean canal from the first arrival of Europeans in Latin America. A French company began excavating the Panama canal in 1880 but work was halted by rampant tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. The project was sold for $40 million to the United States, which finished it in 1914.

The building of the Panama Canal cost an estimated $375 million and involved the excavation of 286 million cubic yards of earth, three times more than the Suez Canal.

Historians say 5,609 people, mainly West Indian workers, died during its construction, on top of the 22,000 dead during the period of French control.

Reposted from Fox News



 

The Panama Canal: The Culebra Cut (Gaillard Cut)

The Culebra Cut - Under construction 1907

One of the greatest barriers to a canal was the continental divide, which originally rose to 110 metres (360.9 ft) above sea level at its highest point; the effort to create a cut through this barrier of rock was clearly one of the greatest challenges faced by the project, and indeed gave rise to one of the greatest engineering feats of its time.

When Goethals arrived at the canal he had brought with him Major David du Bose Gaillard, of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Gaillard was placed in charge of the central district of the canal, which stretched from Pedro Miguel Locks to the Gatun Dam, and dedicated himself to the job of getting the Culebra Cut, as it was then known, excavated.

The scale of the work was massive: six thousand men worked in the cut, drilling holes in which were placed a total of 27,000 t (60,000,000 lb) of dynamite to break up the rock, which was then taken away by as many as 160 trains in a day. Landslides were a frequent and major problem, due to the oxidation and weakening of the underlying iron strata in the rock. The scale of the job, and the frequent unpredictable slides, tended towards chaos; but Gaillard overcame the difficulties with quiet, clear-sighted leadership.

On May 20, 1913, Bucyrus steam shovels made a passage through the Culebra Cut at the level of the canal bottom. The French effort had reduced the summit to 59 metres (193.6 ft), but over a relatively narrow width; the Americans had lowered this to 12 metres (39.4 ft) above sea level, over a much greater width, and had excavated over 76,000,000 m3 (99,000,000 cu yd) of material. Some 23,000,000 m3 (30,000,000 cu yd) of this material was additional to the planned excavation, having been brought into the cut by the landslides.

Dry excavation ended on September 10, 1913; a slide in January had brought1,500,000 m3 (2,000,000 cu yd) of earth into the cut, but it was decided that this loose material would be removed by dredging once the cut was flooded.